In Mission to Moscow, a 1943 Hollywood movie based on his own book that was in turn about his diplomatic career, the former American Ambassador to the Soviet Union Joseph E. Davies went on a ìmissionî on President Franklin D. Rooseveltís behalf to clarify the Kremlinís domestic policies and geopolitical intentions in the days leading to the Second World War. In the spring of 2000, I also traveled to Moscow to ascertain Soviet positions on somewhat different issues. Entitled ìReel Relations: Motion Picture Propaganda, Markets, and the Grand Alliance, 1939 to 1945,î my dissertation deals with the ways in which the wartime partnersóthe United States, Great Britain, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)óused propaganda, specifically motion picture propaganda, as a tool to strengthen the disparate alliance by persuading elites and masses of its cohesiveness and also as a weapon to spread ideological influence and carve out market share in allied, liberated, and former enemy nations. To understand fully these efforts that also helped generate postwar tensions, it was necessary to do some research in the archives of the former Soviet Union. I wanted to discover what the Kremlinís true intentions were in conducting propaganda campaigns, what was its estimation of similar British and American efforts, and why during the war it permitted the Allies to disseminate information in the USSR and then suddenly reversed course as victory neared. Much as did Davies (or at least Walter Huston, the actor who portrayed him), I traveled to Moscow with some trepidation. Along with personal safety issues and language barriers, exacerbating those worries was a dearth of up-to-date practical information about researching in the archives there despite the fact that they have been open for a decade.

This report is thus a practical (and short) guide for living in Moscow and researching in its repositories relevant to foreign policy. Although addressed particularly to those studying cultural relations, propaganda, psychological warfare, and the like, it is generally intended for historians of foreign affairs, who, relative to specialists in Russian or Soviet history, are presumably less familiar with Russiaís archives and Moscow and less accomplished in the spoken Russian language. Following a discussion of pre-trip planning and general issues, the essay describes conditions and procedures at the three facilities I visitedóthe Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation (Arkhiv vneshnei politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii, AVPRF), the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History (Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsialíno-politicheskoi istorii, RGASPI), and the State Archive of the Russian Federation (Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, GARF)/Russian State Archive of the Economy (Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv ekonomiki, RGAE) complex.

Preparation and General Information

In addition, specialized guides to each archive, some of which are noted below, provide some essential data about archival organization. The largest administrative unit in all Russian archives is the record group (singular fond, plural fondy), which is further divided into sub-record groups (plural opisi, singular opisí). At RGASPI, for example, fond 17 contains the records of the All-Soviet Union Communist Party (VKP) Central Committee and its opisí 125 holds the records of the Central Committeeís Propaganda and Agitation Administration (UPA), which from 1938 through 1948 controlled Soviet domestic and foreign propaganda. To paraphrase the old American Express commercial, you would be wise not to leave home without this information, since finding aids (also somewhat confusingly called opisi), unlike at the National Archives or PRO, are generally not open to researchers in a designated reference area. Instead, one must order finding aids, which at GARF take two days to arrive, by citing fond and opisí numbers. Once obtained, finding aids are among the strengths of Russiaís archives in that they comprehensively list every file (singular delo, plural dela) in the sub-record group. After obtaining file numbers, researchers are ready to request documents by submitting an order form (trebovanie), listing desired fond, opisí, and dela numbers. At GARF and RGASPI, which permit researchers to have a maximum of about five dela at any one time, requests take at least two days to arrive; so to maximize efficiency scholars should master the technique of staggering their orders at several different archives.

Before leaving home prospective researchers also need to obtain a Russian visa. Russia is somewhat unusual in that to get a visa one must have an invitation from an official Russian organization, normally an archive. These invitations can be had either by writing letters to head archivists in Moscow or by utilizing a service that does the time consuming work of arranging official invitations and negotiating the labyrinthine Russian bureaucracy. I recommend the latter. I retained, and highly recommend, the services of Praxis International/The Center for the Study of Russia and the Soviet Union, jointly run by American historians J. Arch Getty and Jeffrey Burds. For a reasonable fee, Praxis will initiate the visa process (which must begin in Moscow) and, since it is still Russian law that all foreign visitors must register within three days of their arrival, enroll you with the necessary authorities once there. After taking the necessary steps on the Moscow end, travelers actually receive the visa from the Russian Embassy in Washington, to which applicants must submit forms and a fee. Whichever route you choose, be sure to initiate the process at least three months before your departure date. I did so, but failed to receive the visa until less than a week prior to departure because the Russian Embassy sent it to the wrong person.

Unless they have personal contacts in Moscow, among scholarsí major concerns is housing. The cityís hotels are prohibitively expensive and so, for extended stays, scholars are advised to find accommodation in private apartments, which many Muscovites gladly rent to visiting westerners. One can track down information about available space by querying colleagues familiar with the city, posting an announcement on H-RUSSIA, or consulting listings in the English language The Moscow Times. However, the safer and simpler method is simply to retain Praxis, which has an excellent staff in Moscow that will, for a small fee, offer emergency assistance, organize transportation to and from the airport, and arrange housing. Praxisí staff located me an apartment in a safe and clean building, in a relatively prosperous neighborhood near Moscow State University, and within easy walking distance to grocery stores, restaurants, and public transportation. Although prices fluctuate, one can now expect to pay somewhere between $300 to $500 a month for a one bedroom apartment with full kitchen and bathroom.

Given that Moscowís taxis can be dangerous for foreigners, scholars will probably make heavy use of the cityís outstanding public transportation system. In addition to buses, trolley buses, and streetcars, the system includes a particularly efficient and extensive subway, known as the Metro. Even though single tickets cost the approximate ruble equivalent of a quarter, for convenience researchers should purchase a monthly pass (edinyi bilet) that for around ten dollars entitles holders to unlimited travel on any mode of public transport. However, these passes, purchased at the ticket window (kassa) of any Metro station, are sold only the first and last five days of each month.

Although living and working in Moscow is undeniably difficult, conditions were not as unpleasant as one might imagine. There have been lurid stories about Moscowís surging crime rate circulating in the western media. Although crime, now much more frequent than in Soviet days, does occur and foreigners are obvious targets, if basic precautions are taken Moscow is probably no more dangerous than any large American city. Vigilance should always be practiced and the key is to avoid calling attention to your foreignness (and foolishness) by doing such things as publicly flashing valuables or large amounts of foreign currency, having loud conversations in English, and going out alone at night. Finally, since Russia is experiencing a rapid transition to a consumer economy, visitors will find that they lack nothing as virtually all thingsóincluding plentiful food, clothing, computer and electronic accessories, and personal itemsóare readily available.

Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation (AVPRF)

Seating about twenty, the reading room is open Mondays through Thursdays 10:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M. and Fridays ten to three. As is the case at RGASPI and GARF, there are available outlets (Russian in style and voltage) available for powering laptop computers. Russian-English dictionaries are also permitted in this and all other reading rooms.

Upon their initial visit, scholars will complete a short application (anketa). Since unseen AVPRFís archivists, presumably with varying levels of skill and enthusiasm, use the information listed on the anketa to pull documents they think are useful, it is essential that historians provide as complete, yet succinct, a description of their research project as possible. Given the importance of communicating research themes and needs to archivists at AVPRF and elsewhere, for those with limited verbal skills in Russian it might also be a good idea to present the archivist on duty with a one-page description, in Russian of course, of your topic. Another option is to hire a translator, many of whom advertise these services.

Scholars are themselves unable to select materials because the AVPRF has no publicly available finding aids. During my stay, the reading room provided only a collection list (spisok fondov) giving the barest of information about the archivesí declassified holdings, including collection name (ordinarily listed either by MID official or country), number, and chronological scope. For those working on Soviet propaganda or Soviet-American relations during World War II or the early Cold War, useful collections include Maxim M. Litvinov (fond 5, 1919-47), the wartime head of the Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo) and an assistant commissar for foreign affairs Solomon A. Lozovskii (fond 13, 1939-46), Vyacheslav M. Molotov (fond 6, 1939-49 and 1953-6), and the Soviet embassy in Washington (fond 192, post-1942).

In theory this archive should be among the richest sources for historians of international relations and I am told that it once was. Unfortunately, along with those of other foreign scholars, my own recent experiences suggest that this is no longer the case. For one, it takes an inordinate amount of time actually to receive documents. Although I occasionally received orders after the standard two-day waiting period, it usually took much longer, and in one case over a week. The long delays stem largely from the fact that the facility holding most MID collections is located off-site and the archive apparently employs a driver who transports documents back and forth. Oftentimes, files fail to arrive, researchers are told, because his vehicle, surely the most unreliable in all Moscow, is ìnot working.î More unfortunate is the lack of finding aids, which prevents researchers from selecting relevant documents. Among the dozens of files I eventually received, none contained any information about high-level propaganda policy formulation and only one was remotely useful.

Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History (RGASPI)

Metro stations Teatralínaia or Chekhovskaia are the most convenient to RGASPI, which is located in the heart of Moscow at 15 Bolíshaia Dmitrovka. Unlike many other archives, since it once housed the Museum of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, RGASPI is clearly identifiable by the bas-reliefs of Marx, Engels, and Lenin above its entrance. As is usual, inside there is a large, but unsecured, coat and baggage check area. Directly ahead there is also a security desk, and it is here that readers begin the process of obtaining a research pass (propusk), which it is necessary to have before beginning work. Using a nearby telephone, either you or the guard on duty will ring room 505. Braving thick clouds of smoke, scholars then proceed there and receive the propusk by presenting a letter (obtained either by writing the archive beforehand or from Praxis) and completing an anketa.

The archive has two reading rooms. Those researching Party records do so in the fifth floorís chitalínyi zal, which has limited hours of Monday noon to 6:00 P.M., Wednesday ten to six, and Friday ten to four. Reading of Comintern or Cominform materials is done in the fourth floor facility, open only on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 10:00 A.M. to five in the afternoon. Much like AVPRF, RGASPI is located only a block from one of Moscowís most bustling streets, Tverskaia ulitsa, along which is located shopping, the Central Telegraph building (the main post office/international communication center), and both western and Russian restaurants. In addition, there are two excellent coffee shops one block south of the archive on Bolíshaia Dmitrovka and an on-site cafeteria that for the equivalent of a dollar or two serves a quite tasty lunch. There are restrooms, but they are unclean even by American roadside filling station standards and should be used only in the direst of emergencies.

RGASPIís daily research routine takes a bit of getting used to. Upon reaching the reading room, scholars are expected to sign the daily register and surrender their propusk at the reception desk. At another desk, readers may verbally request finding aids, located in a nearby bank of file cabinets. Unlike at GARF, RGASPIís staff normally retrieves opisi immediately. Submitted at the reception desk, filled orders are placed in a designated storage locker that remains yours throughout your stay. Locker keys are obtained at the front desk. Although files ordinarily arrive in two days, on a few occasions documents were temporarily unavailable because staff members were using them for one reason or another.

Although one would expect otherwiseóbeing that this is the Party archive staffed by many holdovers from Soviet timesóRGASPI was by far the most useful depository I visited. The staff was professional and efficient. Documents generally arrived on time. Comprehensive finding aids were at hand. Further, most of the requested CPSU Central Committee records, including all those of the UPA from 1941 through 1948, had been declassified and were available for research. The lone exceptions were some still classified records of the Department of International Information (fond 17, opisi 128 and 144), the Central Committee arm that directed the international Communist movement during the interregnum between the Comintern and the Cominform. Finally, unlike those at AVPRF, the delivered documents were invaluable in revealing Moscowís thinking about domestic and international propaganda campaigns and its evaluations of concurrent American international publicity efforts and their perceived effect on the Soviet populace.

State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF)/Russian State Archive of the Economy (RGAE)

GARF holds the records of the Soviet Unionís state, rather than Party, organizations, while RGAE contains those of local, regional, and union-wide economic and fiscal administrations. For both, several collection guides have been published. As at RGASPI, finding aids are available on site. However, to view them researchers must submit an order at the appropriate GARF or RGAE service window and wait two days. It is also at these windows that readers subsequently request files, the delivery of which again takes two days.

Although Stalin and the Central Committee made foreign and propaganda policy during World War II and the early Cold War eras, GARF is valuable nonetheless. While a multiarchival approach often proves fruitful in uncovering a wider array of documents than found in a single depository, this is especially so in Soviet archives. State bureaucracies often retained copies of Party directives not found in RGASPI. Furthermore, Soviet state agencies did day-to-day administration work and their records thus contain different kinds of correspondence than that surviving in Party archives. Finally, GARF contains several record groups of use to historians of international relationsóincluding fond 5446, the records of the Council of Peopleís Commissars of the USSR (Sovnarkom, 1923-46) and its successor, the Council of Ministers of the USSR (Sovmin, 1946-91); and fond 7317, the records of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG, 1945-9). At last report, however, the vast majority of SVAGís files were still closed to scholars.

If specialists in the history of propaganda, psychological warfare, or international cultural relations are thorough and patient, GARF can be useful, but not inordinately so. Fond 8581 holds the records of Sovinformburo, which was created in June 1941 following the German invasion and disseminated domestic and foreign radio, press, and magazine propaganda for the next two decades. The All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS, 1929-57) administered the USSRís international academic, scientific, and cultural programs. Although providing little insight into the Soviet leadershipís larger intentions in conducting these programs, VOKSí records (fond 5283) do contain correspondence with the UPA and information about the programsí operation. Finally, through either Sovnarkom or Sovmin, state concerns administered the Soviet mass media. The state radio, television, and motion picture agenciesí records reside at GARF, including the Committee of Cinematography Affairs (1938-46). Scattered among the Sovnarkom fond 5446 and organized by year, the committeeís records unfortunately give little indication of the Kremlinís desires in shaping motion pictures, but they do tell us quite a bit about industrial concerns that subsequently influenced Soviet propaganda policy. All of the requested VOKS and the Cinematography Committee files generated from1941 through 1946 were open to researchers.

By Mission to Moscowís conclusion, Davies returned to Washington convinced that Stalin was a devout believer in collective security, had not really wanted to sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact, and had necessarily traitors during the Great Terror. Although less convinced of Stalinist altruism than was Davies, I too returned from my ìmissionî with a greater understanding of Soviet propaganda policy. While research in Moscow can be frustrating and difficult, preparation and problem solving lessen the challenges and increase the potentially vast rewards.

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